Boyno Polari

‘Se ti sabir,
Ti respondir.
Se non sabir,
Tazir, tazir.’

– Molière, as cited in Todd, 1990, p. 20

When looking at the Polari Dictionary on this website, you may notice that the word ‘Sabir’ is used on several occasions when describing the etymology of certain terms. Despite being used across the Mediterranean for centuries, however, few people in contemporary times know what Sabir is. For this reason, this article will describe what Sabir is, what its history is, and what influence it has had on Polari.

Defining Sabir and Its History

Put in the broadest terms possible, Sabir, or ‘Lingua Franca’, is a mixed language based primarily on Romance languages, and that was historically used in the Mediterranean. Though this definition is a good starting point, it also misses a number of details as to what Sabir’s sources are, when and how the language was used, whether to call it ‘Sabir’ or ‘Lingua Franca’, and how to classify it, all of which appear to be subject to disparate opinions from scholars. For example, consider the descriptions of Sabir put forth by five scholars below.

Natalie Operstein (Linguist, Specialising in Indo-European and Mesoamerican Languages) – ‘Lingua Franca (LF) is a Romance-based contact vernacular that was used for interethnic communication in the Mediterranean region until the second half of the nineteenth century … Although it is believed to have originated centuries before the sixteenth century (Aslanov 2006; Castellanos 2007), and to have been used in eastern as well as western Mediterranean (Schuchardt 1909; Cifoletti 2000, 2004), the bulk of its linguistic documentation is handed down in written sources emanating from the Maghreb and dating from the sixteenth through the nineteenth century (Arends 1998; Couto 2002; Cifoletti 1989, 2004) … The taxonomic status of LF is disputed’ (Operstein, 2017a, p. 1).

Hugo Schuchardt (Linguist, Specialising in Romance Philology) – ‘Lingua Franca is the communicative language formed of a Romance lexicon that arose in the Middle Ages between Romans and Arabs and subsequently Turks; it appears to have spread along the whole of the southern and eastern Mediterranean coast … if one considers that the travelling speakers of Lingua Franca were seamen, then it was occasionally heard everywhere. On the other hand, one might object to recognizing Lingua Franca as a fixed, fully-fledged language, but rather consider it a more or less individualized aberration’. (Schuchardt, 1909, as cited in Markey, 1979, p. 26).

Jacques Arends (Linguist, Specialising in Creole Languages) – ‘… the Italian-based contact language that was used throughout the Mediterranean area from the fifteenth through to the nineteenth century … Although Lingua Franca is sometimes referred to as Sabir, this may be confusing, as the latter is also used to refer to the French-based pidgin that came into existence (presumably on the basis of Lingua Franca) in North Africa in the late nineteenth century. Although Lingua Franca is traditionally categorized as a pidgin language, there is some reason to qualify this classification … it might perhaps more appropriately be categorized as a koine … The Lingua Franca arose as a trade language’ (Arends, 2005, p. 625).

Loreto Todd (Linguist, Specialising in Irish Language and English-Based Creoles) – ‘…medieval Lingua Franca (also called Sabir) … was the common auxiliary language of the multilingual Crusaders and of Mediterranean traders. Records show that Lingua Franca differed in vocabulary from area to area but its structure seems to have been relatively stable’ (Todd, 1990, p. 20).

Joanna Nolan (Linguist, Specialising in Historical Linguistics) – ‘Lingua Franca, a language spoken across the Mediterranean, through much of the Levant and in Barbary, the North African region comprising Algiers, Tunis and Tripoli. Lingua Franca straddled multiple domains. It was the language of international diplomacy but also of domestic life, spoken, according to Haedo (1612), by man, woman and child. Equally, it was the language of pirates, slaves and merchants’ (Nolan, 2020, p. 1).

The descriptions above reveal several inconsistencies. Regarding when the language was spoken, Todd (1990, p. 20) says it was used by the Crusaders, whereas Arends (2005, p. 625) says it was used from the 15th century. Regarding how it was used, Operstein (2017a, p. 1) claims it was primarily for interethnic communication, whereas Nolan (2020, p. 1) claims it was used in multiple domains and for multiple purposes. The only detail that scholars appear to agree upon is the basis of Sabir within Romance languages. Though there are differing accounts of what Romance languages have shaped Sabir, and to what degree, scholars have proposed potential influences from languages such as Provençal, Spanish, Venetian, Ligurian, Portuguese, Italian, Catalan and French (Nolan, 2020, p. 5; Cornellisen, 1992, as cited in Operstein, 2017b, p. 107; Arends, 2005, pp. 625-626; Cifoletti, 1989, as cited in Operstein, 2017b, p. 107; Hall, 1996, as cited in Nolan, 2020, p. 4). Many have also noted influences from non-Romance languages such as Turkish, Greek and Arabic (Nolan, 2020, p. 5; Arends, 2005, p. 626; Cornellisen, 1992, as cited in Operstein, 2017b, p. 107).

Perhaps the ambiguities as to what Sabir is arise partially as a result of the fluid nature of Sabir. As scholars such as Nolan (2020, p. 5) and Todd (1990, p. 20) have noted, Sabir was not standardised, and could differ significantly depending on where it was used. Authors such as Schudhardt (1909, as cited in Markey, 1979, p. 34), Arends (2005, p. 625) and Parkvall (2005) have suggested that versions of Lingua Franca in the Eastern Mediterranean had more of an Italianate influence, whereas the Western Mediterranean had more of an influence from Iberian languages.

Like the definition of Sabir itself, the history of Sabir is likewise disputed. For example, Parkvall (2005) notes that some suggest its origins lie in a simplified form of Latin used by Jewish traders in the Middle Ages. However, a seemingly more common idea reflected in the theories of Arends (2005, p. 625) and Nolan (2023, pp. 8-9) is that it arose due to the multicultural nature of the Mediterranean in the late Middle Ages and Early Modern Period. According to Arends (2005, p. 625), Sabir arose due to Genoese and Venetian maritime trade and colonial activities in the Mediterranean. As a result of various peoples coming into contact, the language arose due to a necessity to communicate between speakers of different languages (Arends, 2005, p. 625). Nolan (2023, pp. 8-9) notes that – prior to coming under Ottoman control – Romance language enclaves had already been established in various locations in North Africa (e.g. Ligurian-speakers in Tabarka, French-speakers in Bastion de France etc.). With Ottoman expansion came increased trade, the international transportation of slaves and migration between Europe and the Islamic world (Nolan 2023, pp. 8-9). As a result of this, there was a necessity for an interethnic language (Nolan 2023, pp. 8-9).

Sabir’s Influence on Polari

According to authors such as Baker (2002, pp. 28-30) and Green (1997, pp. 127-129), Sabir came to influence Polari as a result of English maritime trade relations in the Mediterranean. This is plausible, as the role of the British Empire in the Mediterranean was significant. As early as the 16th century, various chartered English companies had been established in the Mediterranean, including the Levant Company (from 1592) and the Barbary Company (from 1585) (Games, 2008, p. 50). The Levant Company was particularly successful, having trading posts established in places as far as Istanbul and Aleppo, and accumulating profits which were on par with those of the British East India Company (Games, 2008, p. 50). Though the Napoleonic Wars of the early 19th century hindered British trade in the region to an extent, the Levant Company continued to operate in the Mediterranean alongside independent traders during this time (Galani, 2010, pp. 185-186). In the 19th and 20th centuries, British forces also colonised places such as Malta, Corfu, Alexandria, the Ionian Islands and Cyprus, in addition to already capturing Gibraltar in 1704 (Gekas, 2012, pp. 77-78; Games, 2008, p. 53).

Given British presence in the Mediterranean during the time Sabir was used, it is therefore unsurprising that – according to Baker (2002, p. 28) – English sailors probably knew Sabir. However, how a language used by sailors came to influence the speech of entertainers and itinerant peoples is shrouded in mystery. According to Baker (2002, pp. 28-29), it can be explained by sailors, entertainers, rouges and beggars often being forced to take on each other’s occupations out of necessity. According to him, many sailors in the 18th and 19th century were placed far from where they could receive their pay, subsequently having to become rogues, beggars, or entertainers in order to survive (Baker, 2002, p. 28). Conversely, a law passed in 1713 and repealed in 1792 proscribed punishments for those found wandering, with explicit exceptions for sailors (Baker, 2002, p. 28). As such, many itinerant beggars pretended to be sailors (Baker, 2002, p. 28). However, Green (1997, p. 128) suggests that Lingua Franca came to influence the speech of entertainers due to the entertainment industry seeking people who could climb significant heights – a skill that many sailors apparently possessed.

Baker (2002, p. 29) also notes that the Navy was known for attracting a significant number of homosexual men in the 20th century, many of whom were drawn to the industry due to it consisting mostly of men. The all-male environment of the Navy and the large periods of time that the ships were at sea often meant that both heterosexual and homosexual men had sex with men, despite homosexual acts in the Navy being criminalised until 1994 (Stanley, 2016).

Conclusion

Sabir remains a fascinating aspect not only of the linguistic history of the Mediterranean, but also in the history of Polari. It remains shrouded in contention. However, it gives insight into the noticeably multicultural and multilingual history of the Mediterranean in the Middle Ages and Early Modern Period. Along with Ottomans, Arabs, Ligurians, Spaniards and various other people groups, British people and forces likewise held a significant presence in the Mediterranean. Polari holds remnants of this aspect of Britain’s maritime past, with scholars pointing to an influence of Sabir within Polari.

References

Arends, J. (2005). Lingua Franca. In P. Strazny (Ed.), Encyclopedia of Linguistics: Volume 1. Taylor & Francis Group.

Baker, P. (2002). Polari – The Lost Language of Gay Men. Routledge.

Galani, K. (2010). The Napoleonic Wars and the Disruption of Mediterranean Shipping and Trade: British, Greek and American Merchants in Livorno. The Historical Review, 7, 179-198. https://doi.org/10.12681/hr.260.

Games, A. (2008). The Web of Empire: English Cosmopolitans in an Age of Expansion, 1560-1660. Oxford University Press. https://doi.org/10.1093/acprof:oso/9780195335545.001.0001.

Gekas, S. (2012). Colonial Migrants and the Making of a British Mediterranean. European Review of History, 19(1), 75-92. https://doi.org/10.1080/13507486.2012.643611.

Green, J. (1997). Language: Polari. Critical Quarterly, 39(1), 127-131. https://doi.org/10.1111/1467-8705.00083.

Markey, T. L. (Ed.) (1979). The Ethnography of Variation: Selected Writings on Pidgins and Creoles. Karoma Publishers.

Nolan, J. (2020). The Elusive Case of Lingua Franca: Fact and Fiction. Palgrave Macmillan. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-36456-4.

Nolan, J. (2023). Lingua Franca and Français Tirailleur: From Sea Jargon to Military Order?. Palgrave Macmillan. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-30555-9.

Operstein, N. (2017). The Orthography of the Dictionnaire de la Langue Franque. Mediterranean Language Review, 24, 1-33. https://www.jstor.org/stable/10.13173/medilangrevi.24.2017.0001.

Operstein, N. (2017). The Spanish Component in Lingua Franca. Language Ecology, 2(1), 105-136. https://doi.org/10.1075/le.1.2.01ope.

Parkvall, M. (2005). Foreword. Minds@UW. https://minds.wisconsin.edu/bitstream/item/3920/edition3/foreword.html.

Stanley, J. (2016, February 8). Queer Histories in the Navy. Royal Museums Greenwich. https://www.rmg.co.uk/stories/blog/queer-histories-navy.

Todd, L. (1990). Pidgins and Creoles (2nd. ed.). Taylor & Francis Group.

Images

Braun, G. (1575). [Depiction of Algiers]. Wikimedia Commons. https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Civitates_orbis_terrarum._De_praecipuis_totius_universi_urbibus._Liber_secundus_(page_128).jpg.

Edridge, F. L. (1833). [Drawing of Castle Street in Gibraltar in 19th century]. Wikimedia Commons. https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Frederick_Leeds_Edridge_1833_Castle_Street.jpg.

Reis, P. (1525). [16th century map of the Mediterranean]. Wikimedia Commons. https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Piri_Reis_map_of_Europe_and_the_Mediterranean_Sea.jpg.